Outline: Postnatal Dog Vitamins

Introduction

Pregnancy and birth are physically taxing on dogs, requiring a significant amount of nutrients to support the mother and her puppies. Postnatal care is crucial to ensure the mother’s recovery and the puppies’ optimal growth and development. Providing the mother with essential vitamins is an integral part of this care.

Importance of Postnatal Vitamins

• Support Nutrient Replenishment: During pregnancy and labor, the mother experiences significant nutrient depletion. Postnatal vitamins help replenish these nutrients, including calcium, phosphorus, and vitamins A, C, and E.
• Promote Milk Production: Nursing mothers require extra calories and nutrients to produce milk for their puppies. Postnatal vitamins provide the necessary building blocks for milk synthesis.
• Boost Immune Function: The immune system of new mothers is often weakened after giving birth. Postnatal vitamins contain antioxidants and other nutrients that help strengthen their immune defenses.
• Promote Recovery: Vitamins such as vitamin C and zinc play a vital role in tissue repair and wound healing, aiding in the mother’s recovery from labor.

Types of Postnatal Vitamins

There are various types of postnatal dog vitamins available, each formulated with a specific blend of nutrients. When selecting a supplement, consult with your veterinarian to determine the best option for your dog’s individual needs.

Common Postnatal Vitamins

• Prenatal/Postnatal Capsules: These multivitamins provide a comprehensive range of essential vitamins and minerals for both pregnant and nursing mothers.
• Lactation Supplements: Specifically designed for nursing mothers, these supplements focus on nutrients that support milk production, such as calcium and phosphorus.
• Iron Supplements: Iron is crucial for red blood cell production, which is essential during recovery from blood loss during labor.
• Calcium Supplements: Calcium is essential for bone health and milk production. It may be necessary for nursing mothers receiving a diet deficient in calcium.

Dosage and Administration

The dosage and administration of postnatal vitamins should be determined by your veterinarian. The recommended amount and frequency will vary depending on the type of vitamin, the mother’s size, and her lactation status.

• Prenatal/Postnatal Capsules: Typically given daily throughout pregnancy and lactation.
• Lactation Supplements: Usually administered daily during lactation.
• Iron Supplements: May be given for several weeks after labor to replenish iron stores.
• Calcium Supplements: Dosed as needed, based on the mother’s diet and calcium requirements.

Side Effects and Contraindications

Postnatal vitamins are generally safe when used as directed. However, some dogs may experience side effects such as constipation or diarrhea. Inform your veterinarian if you notice any adverse reactions.

Certain conditions may contraindicate the use of postnatal vitamins. For example, dogs with kidney or liver disease should not receive high doses of certain vitamins.

Feeding Considerations

Postnatal vitamins can be administered in several ways:

• Capsules/Tablets: Can be given by mouth with food.
• Powder: Can be mixed with food or water.
• Injections: May be administered by a veterinarian in severe cases of nutrient deficiencies.

Conclusion

Providing postnatal dog vitamins is an essential part of the recovery and lactation process. These supplements replenish depleted nutrients, support milk production, boost immune function, and promote the mother’s recovery. By consulting with your veterinarian and selecting an appropriate supplement, you can ensure that your dog has the optimal nutritional support during this critical time.

Essential Vitamins

Introduction

During the demanding period of pregnancy and lactation, female dogs experience increased nutritional requirements to support the growth and well-being of their puppies. Postnatal vitamins play a vital role in replenishing essential nutrients depleted during these stages and ensuring the optimal health of both the mother and her litter. This article explores the key vitamins that are particularly crucial for postnatal canine care.

Vitamin A

Vitamin A, essential for vision and immune function, is crucial for puppies’ developing eyes and overall immunity. It supports the production of antibodies, which protect the body from infection. Vitamin A deficiency can lead to night blindness, impaired immune response, and delayed growth.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D aids in calcium and phosphorus absorption, supporting strong bones and teeth in both mothers and puppies. It also plays a vital role in regulating immune function and reducing inflammation. Vitamin D deficiency can lead to rickets, a bone disease that can cause stunted growth and deformities.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E is a potent antioxidant that protects cells from damage caused by free radicals. It is particularly important for pregnant and lactating dogs as their bodies produce higher levels of free radicals. Vitamin E supports the immune system, promotes healthy skin and coat, and helps prevent anemia in puppies.

Vitamin K

Vitamin K is essential for blood clotting and helps prevent excessive bleeding during and after birth. It also supports liver function and plays a role in bone metabolism. Vitamin K deficiency can lead to prolonged bleeding and other health issues.

Vitamin B Complex

The vitamin B complex consists of several B vitamins, each playing a distinct role in various bodily functions. These vitamins include:

• Thiamin (B1): Supports energy production and nerve function
• Riboflavin (B2): Aids in cell growth and energy metabolism
• Niacin (B3): Supports skin health and energy production
• Pantothenic acid (B5): Essential for hormone production and fat metabolism
• Pyridoxine (B6): Involved in amino acid metabolism and nerve function
• Biotin (B7): Promotes healthy skin, coat, and nails
• Folic acid (B9): Vital for cell growth and DNA synthesis
• Cobalamin (B12): Necessary for red blood cell production and nerve function

Importance of Postnatal Vitamins

Providing postnatal vitamins to nursing mothers ensures:

• Replenishment of depleted nutrients: Lactation depletes the mother’s nutrient stores, and vitamins help replenish these crucial substances.
• Optimal puppy growth: Vitamins support the healthy development of bones, muscles, vision, and immune system in puppies.
• Increased milk production: Certain vitamins, such as thiamin and biotin, aid in milk production and quality.
• Improved immune function: Puppies are born with immature immune systems, and vitamins help boost their defenses.
• Reduced risk of health issues: Postnatal vitamins help prevent vitamin deficiencies, which can lead to various health problems.

Consulting a Veterinarian

When selecting postnatal vitamins for your female dog, it is essential to consult with a veterinarian. They can recommend the appropriate vitamin supplement based on the dog’s age, size, breed, and specific needs. Over-the-counter vitamin supplements may not be formulated for postpartum recovery and may lack the necessary dosage or composition.

Conclusion

Postnatal vitamins play a crucial role in supporting the health and well-being of nursing dogs and their puppies. By ensuring adequate intake of essential vitamins, such as vitamin A, D, E, K, and the vitamin B complex, caregivers can help their furry loved ones recover from pregnancy and lactation while promoting optimal development and growth in their puppies. Consulting a veterinarian for personalized vitamin recommendations is highly advised to ensure the best possible care for the nursing mother and her litter.

Specific Nutrient Requirements

After giving birth, mother dogs experience a surge in nutrient demands to support their own recovery and the development of their puppies. Providing the right vitamins and minerals is crucial to their well-being. Here’s a breakdown of the essential nutrients that nursing mothers require:

Calcium

• Benefits: Calcium is vital for strong bones, teeth, and skeletal growth in puppies. It also supports muscle function, nerve transmission, and blood clotting.
• Daily requirement: 300-500 mg/kg of body weight
• Sources: Dairy products (e.g., milk, yogurt), leafy greens (e.g., spinach, kale), fish (e.g., salmon, tuna), eggshells

Phosphorus

• Benefits: Phosphorus works in conjunction with calcium to support bone development and maintain electrolyte balance. It also plays a role in energy metabolism.
• Daily requirement: 150-250 mg/kg of body weight
• Sources: Meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, legumes (e.g., beans, lentils), nuts

Iron

• Benefits: Iron is crucial for oxygen transport, red blood cell production, and immune function. Nursing mothers may experience a drop in iron levels due to blood loss during delivery.
• Daily requirement: 0.1-0.2 mg/kg of body weight
• Sources: Red meat, poultry, liver, shellfish, leafy greens (e.g., spinach, kale)

Zinc

• Benefits: Zinc supports immune function, wound healing, and cell division. It also promotes appetite and taste perception.
• Daily requirement: 0.5-1.0 mg/kg of body weight
• Sources: Meat, poultry, fish, oysters, yogurt, eggs

Iodine

• Benefits: Iodine is essential for thyroid hormone production, which regulates metabolism, growth, and development.
• Daily requirement: 0.02-0.04 mg/kg of body weight
• Sources: Seafood (e.g., fish, shellfish), iodized salt, dairy products

Meeting Nutritional Needs

Meeting the specific nutrient requirements of postnatal dogs requires a balanced diet that provides sufficient amounts of these vital vitamins and minerals. Here are some tips:

• Choose high-quality commercial dog food: Formulated for nursing mothers, these foods contain the necessary nutrients in appropriate proportions.
• Supplement with specific nutrients: If the commercial food does not meet all of the mother’s nutrient needs, additional supplements may be required. Consult with your veterinarian for specific recommendations.
• Provide fresh water: Adequate hydration is essential for overall health and milk production.

By ensuring that postnatal dogs receive the proper nutrients, you can support their recovery, enhance their milk production, and foster the healthy development of their puppies. Regular veterinary checkups are also essential to monitor their well-being and adjust nutritional requirements as needed.

Sources of Vitamins and Nutrients

After the arduous journey of giving birth, it is crucial for nursing mothers to replenish their depleted nutrient stores and provide their puppies with the vital nourishment for healthy growth. Postnatal dog vitamins play a significant role in this process, supporting the recovery and well-being of both the mother and her litter.

Sources of Vitamins and Nutrients

To meet the increased nutritional demands during the postnatal period, dog owners can access various sources of vitamins and nutrients for their pets.

a. Commercial Dog Food

Many commercial dog foods are specifically formulated to cater to the nutritional needs of lactating mothers. These foods contain balanced amounts of protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals essential for recovery and milk production. When choosing a food, it is important to select a high-quality brand that meets the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) standards.

b. Supplements

If commercial dog food alone is not sufficient to meet the mother’s needs, vitamin and mineral supplements can be considered. These supplements can provide additional doses of specific nutrients, such as calcium, iron, and vitamins A, D, and E. It is essential to consult with a veterinarian before administering any supplements to ensure they are appropriate for the mother and do not interact with other medications.

c. Natural Sources

In addition to commercial food and supplements, natural sources can provide a valuable contribution to a postnatal dog’s diet. Some nutrient-rich foods that can be offered in moderation include:

• Lean meats: Chicken, turkey, and fish provide high-quality protein.
• Eggs: A good source of protein, vitamins, and minerals.
• Dairy products: Cottage cheese and yogurt can provide calcium and other nutrients.
• Fruits and vegetables: Fruits and vegetables offer antioxidants and fiber.

Specific Nutrient Requirements

During the postnatal period, lactating mothers have specific nutrient requirements to support their recovery and milk production. These include:

• Protein: Essential for tissue repair and milk production.
• Calcium: Crucial for bone and muscle health.
• Iron: Vital for red blood cell production and preventing anemia.
• Vitamins A, D, and E: Supports the immune system, skin, and coat health.

Monitoring and Precautions

While postnatal vitamins are essential, it is important to monitor the mother’s health and adjust her diet accordingly. Overfeeding can lead to weight gain and other health issues. It is also crucial to avoid giving the mother any human vitamins or supplements as they may be harmful to dogs.

Conclusion

Postnatal dog vitamins play a pivotal role in the recovery and well-being of nursing mothers and their puppies. By providing a balanced and nutritious diet that includes commercial dog food, supplements, and natural sources, dog owners can ensure that their pets receive the essential vitamins and nutrients they need to thrive during this critical period. Careful monitoring and consultation with a veterinarian are vital to ensure optimal nutrition and prevent any potential health concerns.

Dosage and Administration

Introduction

After welcoming a new puppy into your life, it’s essential to provide optimal nutrition to support their growth and development. Postnatal dog vitamins play a crucial role in ensuring that your puppy receives the necessary vitamins and minerals for proper health. This article will provide comprehensive guidelines on the dosage, frequency, and timing of administration of postnatal dog vitamins.

Recommended Daily Intake

The recommended daily intake of postnatal dog vitamins varies depending on the age, weight, and breed of your puppy. It’s important to consult with your veterinarian to determine the appropriate dosage for your specific dog.

Frequency and Timing of Administration

Most postnatal dog vitamins are administered daily. The ideal frequency and timing will depend on the specific product you choose. Some vitamins may be formulated to be given once or twice a day, while others may be designed for a more frequent dosing schedule. It’s essential to follow the instructions on the product label carefully.

Considerations for Different Life Stages

The nutritional needs of a dog change throughout its life stages. Postnatal dog vitamins are specifically designed to meet the unique requirements of puppies during their early development.

• Newborn Puppies (0-4 weeks): Puppies are entirely dependent on their mother’s milk for nutrition. Postnatal vitamins are not necessary during this stage.

• Weaning Puppies (4-8 weeks): As puppies begin to wean, they may benefit from supplementing with postnatal vitamins. This helps ensure they receive essential nutrients that may not be available in their diet.

• Puppyhood (8 weeks-1 year): Puppies require a gradual increase in nutrients as they grow. Postnatal vitamins provide a balanced source of vitamins and minerals to support their rapid growth and development.

• Adulthood (1 year+): Most dogs do not require postnatal vitamins once they reach adulthood. Their nutritional needs can typically be met through a balanced diet.

Types of Postnatal Dog Vitamins

Postnatal dog vitamins come in various forms, including:

• Liquids: Liquid vitamins are convenient to administer and can be easily added to food or water.
• Tablets or Capsules: Tablets and capsules provide a convenient way to give vitamins in a precise dosage.
• Chewable Tablets: Chewable tablets are formulated to be palatable and appealing to dogs.

Choosing the Right Postnatal Dog Vitamin

When choosing a postnatal dog vitamin, consider the following factors:

• Reputation and Quality Control: Choose a product from a reputable manufacturer with a history of producing high-quality pet supplements.
• Ingredient List: Ensure the vitamin contains essential vitamins and minerals for puppies’ growth and development.
• Dosage and Administration: Verify that the dosage and administration instructions are clear and easy to follow.
• Flavor and Palatability: If your dog is picky, choose a vitamin with an appealing flavor or form to make administration easier.

Administering Postnatal Dog Vitamins

• Consult with Your Veterinarian: Always consult with your veterinarian before starting any vitamin supplementation.
• Follow Dosage Instructions: Administer the vitamin according to the recommended dosage and frequency.
• Monitor Your Dog: Observe your dog for any changes in behavior or health after starting vitamins. If you notice any adverse effects, discontinue use and consult with your veterinarian.

Conclusion

Postnatal dog vitamins are an important part of a puppy’s health and development. By following the recommended dosage, frequency, and timing of administration, you can provide your puppy with the essential nutrients it needs for optimal growth and well-being. Consult with your veterinarian to determine the most suitable postnatal dog vitamin for your specific puppy and ensure proper administration for the best results.

Benefits of Postnatal Vitamins

Nursing mother dogs and their litter of newborns require specialized nutritional support to ensure the optimal health and development of both. Postnatal vitamins play a crucial role in fulfilling this need, providing essential nutrients that contribute to the proper growth, immune function, disease prevention, and joint health of the puppies.

a. Proper Growth and Development:

Postnatal vitamins are rich in essential vitamins, minerals, and amino acids that are necessary for the proper growth and development of puppies. These nutrients support the development of strong bones and muscles, healthy teeth, and a robust immune system. Puppies need an abundance of protein, calcium, and phosphorus for healthy bone growth. Vitamins A, D, and E also play vital roles in bone development, immune function, and tissue repair.

b. Enhanced Immune Function:

Nursing mother dogs produce antibodies that are passed on to their puppies through the milk. These antibodies help protect the puppies from various infections and diseases. Postnatal vitamins contain a high concentration of antioxidants, vitamins C and E, and other immune-boosting nutrients that enhance the immune function of both the mother and her litter. A strong immune system helps protect against common illnesses, ensuring the overall health and well-being of the puppies.

c. Reduced Risk of Disease:

Postnatal vitamins contain a combination of nutrients that work together to reduce the risk of disease in puppies. For example, vitamin A plays a crucial role in maintaining the health of the mucous membranes and skin, which act as barriers against pathogens. Vitamin C supports the immune system and helps prevent infections. By providing these essential nutrients, postnatal vitamins help protect puppies from a range of illnesses, contributing to their overall health and longevity.

d. Improved Joint Health:

Puppies are highly active and engage in a lot of running and jumping. Postnatal vitamins contain nutrients that support joint health and mobility. Glucosamine and chondroitin, for example, are natural supplements that help maintain joint cartilage and reduce inflammation. Omega-3 fatty acids are also essential for joint health, supporting the flexibility and fluidity of joint movements. By providing these nutrients, postnatal vitamins contribute to the long-term joint health of the puppies, ensuring their ability to remain active and mobile throughout their lives.

Choosing the Right Postnatal Dog Vitamins:

When selecting postnatal dog vitamins, it is important to choose a product that is specifically designed for nursing mothers and their puppies. Look for a formula that contains a comprehensive range of essential vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. Consult with your veterinarian to determine the appropriate dosage and frequency of administration.

Conclusion:

Postnatal dog vitamins are an essential part of ensuring the optimal health and well-being of nursing mother dogs and their puppies. By providing essential nutrients for proper growth, enhanced immune function, reduced risk of disease, and improved joint health, these vitamins support the long-term health and happiness of both the mother and her litter. As a responsible dog owner, it is crucial to incorporate postnatal vitamins into the care regimen of nursing mother dogs to provide their puppies with the best possible start in life.

Signs of Vitamin Deficiency

After giving birth, mother dogs have increased nutritional needs to support their own recovery and the proper growth and development of their puppies. Postnatal dog vitamins are crucial in replenishing these lost nutrients and ensuring the well-being of both the mother and her litter. However, when these vitamins are deficient, it can lead to various health concerns that require prompt attention.

Signs of Vitamin Deficiency in Postnatal Dogs

Vitamin deficiencies can manifest through a range of clinical signs, including:

1. Poor Weight Gain

Inadequate intake of essential vitamins can result in poor weight gain in both the mother dog and her puppies. This is because vitamins play a vital role in metabolism and nutrient utilization, enabling the body to convert food into energy and build tissues.

2. Lethargy

Vitamin deficiencies can cause a general feeling of fatigue and weakness in mother dogs. This lethargy can hinder their ability to care for their litter and may also affect their appetite, leading to further nutritional deficiencies.

3. Skin and Coat Problems

Deficiencies of certain vitamins, such as vitamin A, vitamin D, and vitamin E, can manifest as skin and coat problems. These may include dry, flaky skin, hair loss, and dullness of the coat. These issues are caused by the impairment of skin cell regeneration and the production of sebum, which is essential for maintaining a healthy skin barrier.

4. Neurological Issues

Some vitamins, particularly vitamin B1 (thiamine) and vitamin B12 (cobalamin), play crucial roles in the proper functioning of the nervous system. Deficiencies of these vitamins can lead to neurological problems such as tremors, seizures, and impaired coordination.

5. Other Signs

In addition to these primary signs, vitamin deficiencies can also lead to other health problems such as:

• Impaired immune function
• Increased susceptibility to infections
• Reduced milk production
• Premature weaning
• Developmental problems in puppies

Importance of Postnatal Dog Vitamins

Postnatal dog vitamins are essential for preventing and addressing vitamin deficiencies in both mother dogs and their puppies. These vitamins provide the necessary nutrients to support the following functions:

• Maternal recovery: Replenishing lost nutrients, promoting uterine involution, and restoring hormonal balance.
• Puppies’ growth and development: Ensuring proper bone formation, muscle development, and cognitive function.
• Milk production: Meeting the increased nutritional demands of lactating mothers.

Choosing the Right Postnatal Dog Vitamins

When selecting postnatal dog vitamins, it’s important to consider the specific needs of the mother and her litter. Factors to keep in mind include:

• Breed: Different breeds may have different vitamin requirements based on their size and activity level.
• Age: Puppies require different vitamin ratios than adult dogs.
• Litter size: The number of puppies will influence the mother’s nutritional needs.
• Health status: Dogs with underlying health conditions may require additional vitamin supplementation.

Conclusion

Vitamin deficiencies in postnatal dogs can lead to a range of health issues that can impact the well-being of both the mother and her puppies. By recognizing the signs of vitamin deficiency and providing appropriate supplementation, pet owners can ensure that their dogs have the optimal nutritional support they need during this critical time. Consulting with a veterinarian is always recommended to determine the best course of action for each individual case.

Precautions and Considerations

Postnatal vitamins play a crucial role in supporting a nursing dog’s nutritional needs and ensuring the well-being of her puppies. However, it’s essential to exercise caution and be aware of potential risks associated with their use. Here are some key precautions and considerations to keep in mind:

1. Overdosing:

Like any supplement, excessive intake of postnatal vitamins can lead to overdosing and adverse effects. Always follow the recommended dosage instructions carefully. Overdosing can cause:

• Vomiting and diarrhea
• Lethargy
• Liver or kidney damage
• Hypervitaminosis (excessive levels of certain vitamins)

2. Interactions with Medications:

Certain vitamins and minerals in postnatal supplements can interact with medications your dog may be taking. Some potential interactions include:

• Calcium supplements can interfere with the absorption of antibiotics like tetracycline and quinolones.
• Vitamin D supplements can increase the toxicity of cardiac glycosides (heart medications).
• Vitamin K supplements can interfere with anticoagulant medications like warfarin.

If your dog is on any medications, consult with your veterinarian before giving her postnatal vitamins to ensure there are no potential interactions.

3. Special Needs of Lactating or Pregnant Dogs:

Nursing dogs have increased nutritional demands to produce milk for their puppies. However, pregnant or lactating dogs should not be given postnatal vitamins unless specifically directed by a veterinarian. The specialized nutritional requirements of pregnant and lactating dogs may be met through a high-quality diet alone.

Additional Precautions:

• Choose high-quality postnatal vitamins specifically designed for dogs and formulated to meet their specific nutritional needs.
• Gradually introduce the vitamins into your dog’s diet to prevent stomach upset.
• Monitor your dog’s response to the vitamins and adjust the dosage as needed based on her individual requirements.
• Store postnatal vitamins in a cool, dry place out of reach of children and pets.

Possible Signs of Vitamin Deficiency:

If your nursing dog is not receiving adequate nutrition or is deficient in certain vitamins, she may exhibit symptoms such as:

• Weight loss
• Poor appetite
• Lethargy
• Reduced milk production
• Poor puppy growth or development

Conclusion:

Postnatal vitamins can be beneficial for nursing dogs if used appropriately with caution. By following these precautions and consulting with your veterinarian, you can ensure that your dog and her puppies receive the optimal nutrition they need during this critical time. Remember, always prioritize the health and well-being of your pets above all else.

Role of Veterinary Consultation

As a responsible dog owner, you want to provide the best care for your pregnant and nursing pet. Postnatal vitamins play a crucial role in supporting the health and well-being of your dog during this important period. However, it’s essential to consult your veterinarian before administering any supplements or vitamins.

Personalized Recommendations Based on Breed and Health Status

Every dog has unique nutritional needs based on their breed, size, and health status. Certain breeds, such as large and giant breeds, require higher doses of calcium and other nutrients during pregnancy and lactation. Likewise, dogs with underlying health conditions may need specific supplements to address their specific needs. A veterinarian can assess your dog’s individual requirements and recommend the most appropriate vitamin regimen.

Monitoring Progress and Adjusting Dosage

Postnatal vitamins should be administered according to the veterinarian’s instructions and monitored closely. Signs of overdosing on vitamins can include vomiting, diarrhea, lethargy, and excessive thirst. Your veterinarian will monitor your dog’s progress and adjust the dosage or type of vitamin as needed to ensure optimal health and avoid any adverse effects.

Addressing Any Concerns or Side Effects

While postnatal vitamins are generally safe and beneficial, it’s important to be aware of potential side effects. Some dogs may experience an allergic reaction to certain ingredients, such as soy or wheat. If you notice any unusual symptoms after administering vitamins, such as skin irritation, lethargy, or digestive problems, consult your veterinarian promptly.

Additional Considerations

• Start supplementation early: Begin giving postnatal vitamins a few weeks before your dog is due to whelp to ensure adequate nutritional support.
• Continue supplementation after weaning: Vitamins should be continued for several weeks after the puppies have been weaned to help your dog recover from lactation.
• High-quality supplements: Choose postnatal vitamins from reputable manufacturers that adhere to industry standards and provide a complete range of essential nutrients.
• Avoid homemade supplements: While it may seem tempting to create your own vitamin concoctions, it’s crucial to avoid homemade supplements as they may not provide the balanced nutrition your dog needs.

Conclusion

Postnatal dog vitamins play a significant role in supporting the health of both mother and puppies during the critical period following birth. However, it’s essential to involve your veterinarian in the decision-making process to ensure that your dog receives the most appropriate supplementation. By considering personalized recommendations, monitoring progress, and addressing any concerns, you can provide optimal nutritional care for your beloved pet during this important time.